Facilitating the Experience: Mastering the Art and Science of Group Dynamics

Introduction

The Mission of the 4-H Youth Development Program

4-H is the youth development component of the federal land grant university system. In Washington State, 4-H is linked to Washington State University (WSU). The mission of WSU 4-H is to create supportive environments for all youth and families to reach their fullest potential. The targeted outcomes of 4-H involvement are:

• Developing Life-Skills. Responsibility, self-efficacy, decision making, communication, and teamwork are just a few of the life-skills that youth can develop through interaction within their 4-H communities. Sustained and meaningful relationships reinforce the quality of learning in 4-H programs.
• Creating Caring, Capable, and Contributing Citizens.
  4-H clubs are encouraged to commit a part of their time to community service and development projects. Research has demonstrated that 4-H youth who spend several years in a 4-H program are 3.5 times more likely to continue with civic engagement than peers who never participate in 4-H (Lerner and Lerner 2006). This outcome is also directly linked to the Washington State University Extension mission of striving “to help people develop leadership skills and use research-based knowledge to improve their economic status and quality of life.”

4-H Adventure Programs offer youth and adults the opportunity to learn experientially, providing the skills to build strong learning communities capable of creating positive social change.

What is Experiential Learning?

Experiential learning is loosely defined as “learning by doing” (Figure 1), which consists of doing an activity and then reflecting upon the experience to gain learning insights. The insights we gain through experience can then be applied to other experiences. In order to really learn from an experience, the doing, reflecting, and applying, are all necessary steps for learning. Adventure education is one approach to experiential learning.

“Experiential learning takes place when a person is involved in an activity, then looks back and evaluates it, determines what was useful or important to remember and uses this information to perform another activity” (Dewey 1938).

What is Adventure Education?

“When a student participates voluntarily, is intrinsically motivated, and experiences a sense of uncertainty about the outcome, he or she is, by definition, having an adventure.” (Priest and Gass 1997).

Although the term “adventure” is likely to conjure up images of Indiana Jones or something from the pages of National Geographic, participants in adventure programs don’t have to chase after lost treasures, or venture halfway around the globe in order to have an adventure. Lori Frank, in her book, Adventure in the Classroom (Frank 1988), puts forward these fundamental beliefs of what the adventure-based learning model is:

• Fun and Engaging. In order for learning to take place, it must be meaningful, stimulating, and personally rewarding.
• Relationship Centered. Every situation offers participants a chance to build strong relationships. In order to take healthy risks, participants must feel physically and emotionally safe and supported.
• Intentional. Growth is change. In order for growth to take place, participants must be willing to stretch their comfort zones by taking healthy physical, intellectual, and emotional risks.

Traditionally, adventure programs created unique learning environments by taking participants outdoors, away from their normal settings, and allowing them to connect with nature in the woods, on a rock cliff, on a river, or in the snow. Early research indicated that a change of environment was a necessary piece of the adventure experience. However, by creating an element of the unknown, the opportunity for adventure can happen just about anywhere, such as a classroom, hallway, gym, retreat center, board room, even a parking lot. Any of these places can become the location of an adventure, if an element of carefully managed risk, surprise, and uncertainty exists.

The Spectrum of Adventure-Based Programs

There are many different purposes for adventure programs (Figure 2). Although on the surface there are similarities between activities, there is a wide spectrum of purposes and philosophies in the experiential field. Adventure programs can range from recreational-type activities to therapy-driven activities. The 4-H Adventure Education Programs fall in the middle of the spectrum. These programs focus on education and life-skill development, and are designed to be more than entertainment or recreation. They help participants learn new concepts, and develop or enhance, personal and interpersonal skills and behaviors through meaningful and fun experiences.

Adventure-based activities are an instrument of change:

• Recreation (Change Feelings): Providing an enjoyable and cathartic experience.
• Education (Change Thinking): Teaching concepts, generating enrichment or creating awareness.
• Development (Change Behaviors): Enhancing positive actions and increasing functional behaviors.
• Therapy (Change Misbehaviors): Diminishing negative actions and decreasing dysfunctional behaviors.

WSU 4-H Adventure Education Programs

This manual is a foundation of theories and methods which support educational adventure activities and building learning communities. WSU 4-H Adventure Education provides a wide range of delivery modes for facilitators to present their expertise. High, low, and portable low challenge courses, boating, backpacking, and a variety of winter sports, all can be opportunities to frame adventure learning.

School systems and teachers can use adventure techniques through the 4-H programs, “Building Successful Learning Communities,” and “Rites of Passage.” However, these programs require specialized training and use the foundational theories and techniques presented in this publication.

Section I: Theoretical Components

Adventure is Human Potential

Regardless of what kind of adventure you are facilitating, be it an inquiry in a museum or repelling down a one-hundred-foot cliff-face, if your goal is to build life-skills in an intentional and supportive community, there are methods you can use that will help you create a successful experience.

Each piece of this theory is an integral part of creating an intentional learning community, which is the bedrock of adventure learning. Participants aren’t just going to the museum, and they aren’t just jumping off a cliff. Facilitators are being intentional about observing how participants engage in the midst of challenging experiences. The WSU 4-H Adventure Education Program identifies and achieves individual and group outcomes by offering participants visceral, focused experiences, which develop self-efficacy and cooperation skills through meaningful reflection.

Experiential Education Theory

An experience can engage all the senses of the participant, and if effective, it can impact emotional, social, mental, and possibly, spiritual growth. The group is an “entity,” and if a facilitator brings the group dynamic to attention, the experiences can also help shape an evolving community. Experience-based, action-oriented learning is often reported to have long-range and memorable impacts on the experiential learner.

Based on David Kolb’s Experiential Education Model (Kolb and Fry 1975), the adventure approach to activities use a “Do, Reflect, Apply” process (Figure 1). Through this process, facilitators guide an experience, then ask participants to step back from that experience and reflect on what they did and what they can learn from that experience. Facilitators can also provide follow up questions and new opportunities for the group to apply what they have learned. A common aim of facilitation is to help participants transfer their learning by helping them draw parallels between their adventure experiences, and the challenges they face in their everyday lives.

• Do the Activity. Participants explore and learn when they are involved in a hands-on activity. Activities generally encourage use of all the senses as well as group interaction.
• Reflect on the Activity. Participants reflect on the activity when they think about their experience. To do this, the leader asks participants questions such as, “What did you just do? How did your plan develop? Were everyone’s ideas heard? Did everyone know the plan before you started? Why is it important that everyone know? What was your role in the planning process?”
• Apply the Activity. The real indicator of successful learning occurs when participants take what they have learned in an experience, and transfer it to another activity, or into their lives beyond the experience. By asking questions, the facilitator guides the group to these discoveries. Questions may include, “What did you learn about group planning? Think of an activity you are going to plan with a group of people at school, in your community, with your family, or in a group you belong to. Now, how can you apply what you have learned to the planning of that activity?”

Principles of Experiential Education

The following principles of experiential education are adapted from the Association for Experiential Education (2007) and used with permission:

• Experiential learning occurs when carefully chosen experiences are supported by reflection, critical analysis, and synthesis.
• Experiences are structured to require the learner to take initiative, make decisions, and be accountable for the results.
• Throughout the experiential learning process, the learner is actively engaged in posing questions, investigating, experimenting, being curious solving problems, assuming responsibility, being creative, and constructing meaning.
• Learners are engaged intellectually, emotionally, socially, soulfully, and physically. This involvement produces a perception that the learning task is authentic.
• The results of the learning are personal and form the basis for future experience and learning.
• Relationships are developed and nurtured: learner to self, learner to others, and learner to the world at large.
• Because the outcomes of experience cannot be totally predicted, the educator and learner may experience success, failure, adventure, risk-taking, and uncertainty.
• Opportunities are nurtured for learners and educators to explore and examine their own values.
• The educator’s primary roles include setting suitable experiences, posing problems, setting boundaries, supporting learners, insuring physical and emotional safety, and facilitating the learning process.
• The educator recognizes and encourages spontaneous opportunities for learning.
• Educators strive to be aware of their biases, judgments, and pre-conceptions and how they influence the learner.
• The design of the learning experience includes the possibility to learn from natural consequences, mistakes, and successes.

Growth Zones and Risk Taking

It was the psychologist Piaget (known as the “father of constructivism”) that first introduced the theory that learning takes place when an individual is in a state of disequilibrium, and must either assimilate new knowledge into already existing mental schema, or accommodate new knowledge by reforming existing mental schema (Piaget 1985). Adventure education aims to develop personal growth by intentionally assisting participants in challenging boundaries or comfort zones. (Luckner and Nadler 1992). The effectiveness of the model depends on creating a physically and emotionally safe space where learning can occur in the context of enjoyment, rather than coercive socialization or discipline.

The Comfort and Growth Zone concept is based on the idea that all individuals have unique strengths and weaknesses. Each individual has things that are easy for them—things within their comfort zone. And, each has things that are not easy or comfortable—things that stretch and challenge them create a growth zone. It is in this growth zone that challenges and learning occurs.

If we wish to grow mentally, socially, and emotionally as human beings, we cannot remain in our comfort zones. We must confront the things that are difficult and uncomfortable, learn to step outside our comfort zone, and risk the uneasiness of our growth zone. This is often referred to as pushing our growing edges. Fortunately, as we push our growing edges with increased frequency, we become accustomed to the disequilibrium, and suddenly we find our comfort zone has expanded. Consequently we feel more confident in further challenging ourselves.

There is a point of caution. It is possible to take participants so far out of their comfort zones, that their natural physical, mental, and emotional defenses kick in (panic zone). In a state of panic or fear, participants are no longer open to, or capable of growth. It is not uncommon at this point for participants to shut down or retreat to the comfort zone, and resist further growth. In this case, it is difficult for positive learning to take place. In fact, it’s likely that the experience will be viewed by the participant as a negative-learning experience. Negative experiences generally result in fear and other emotional baggage, which needs to be recognized and addressed before new positive learning can be experienced. Using the growth circles model (Frank 1988) with participants can help them become conscious of a process that is usually operating outside of their conscious awareness (Figure 3).

Challenge by Choice

Participants may not be willing to step into their growth zones in an environment they suspect, or know, is physically hostile or emotionally threatening. Participants will want to feel safe and supported before they choose to step into their growth zone. Facilitators are an important factor in establishing that environment of trust. The team, group, or intentional learning community also plays a critical role in supporting each other’s sense of well-being. An excellent practice for group support is commonly referred to as “Challenge by Choice” (Challenge by Choice used with permission from Project Adventure, 1991).

A concept forged by Project Adventure (1991), Challenge by Choice asks participants to challenge themselves and participate fully in each experience. The participating group must recognize that any activity or goal may pose a different level and type of challenge for each group member, and that authentic personal change comes from within. Whereas one participant might be taking a significant personal risk, facing fears, and stepping into their growth zone when they climb to the top of a six foot ladder, another participant might need to be challenged by being blindfolded for the same activity. Challenge by Choice is different for each participant. In a learning community it’s not about who goes further or does the most, it’s about how much each person chooses to push himself or herself, and the mutual respect and support they receive from their group.

When participants agree to practice Challenge by Choice, they agree to respect and support each other’s thoughtful choices. This means that the group will offer support and encouragement, but will not push someone into their panic zone through peer pressure. Although this may result in participants playing different roles during an activity, all participants are still expected to contribute to the group’s process in some way. Each individual is responsible for setting their own goals and limits based on their own understanding of their comfort zone and growth circle. No one can tell someone else what they need to accomplish to have a growing experience. Challenge by Choice is the open door that invites participants to step out of their comfort zone and push their growing edges. It helps create a caring atmosphere in which participants can challenge themselves.

The Full Value Contract

Building a community where each individual is valued and supported is the facilitator’s goal. An essential tool in reaching this goal is the Full Value Contract (Full Value Contract used with permission from Project Adventure, 1991), a declaration of working rules or principles whereby each group member is fully valued. All contracts have two non-negotiable points in them:

• We agree to be emotionally and physically safe.
• We agree to practice Challenge by Choice.

There are various ways facilitators can develop a Full Value Contract with a group, depending on their purpose and amount of time available. In extremely short programs (2 to 3 hours), they can quickly frontload a contract for the group to adopt. But whenever possible, it is strongly recommend that facilitators take the time to initiate a discovery process, whereby the group creates its own contract.

To facilitate this process there are numerous Full Value Contract activities to choose from. Ultimately, the group must come to an agreement on what behavior participants expect from each other in order to work together effectively and safely. When a group creates their own contract, its members take ownership in it and its value increases greatly.

The group’s commitment to a contract also provides the facilitator with a tool for guiding behavior and for developing debriefing questions. A facilitator, early in the process, and particularly with younger audiences, may want to point out when people are living by or devaluing the contract, and making it clear that the group should to hold to its agreement. Facilitation can also include debrief questions such as, “How does what just happened fit our Full Value Contract?” It is critical that the group develops a contract that fits individual and collective needs, as well as the goals of the group. Remember that a full value contract is a “living document,” and it can be revisited and changed as the group evolves. A Full Value Contract can be the glue that holds the group together.

Full Value Contract Samples

Group Commitments

• Work Together as a Group. We will work towards our group and individual goals as a team.
• Be Safe—Physically and Emotionally. Be careful of yourself and others, no put-downs. You will be supportive and caring to others.
• Give and Receive Honest Feedback. Tell others what you are thinking and feeling in an emotionally-safe way. Be willing to listen to what others say to you.
• Have Fun! We all need to play and have fun in a safe manner.
• Recognize Growth. By listening, trying new things, and working towards goals, you will experience personal and group growth.

The Five Finger Contract (Figure 4)

• First Finger. Safety First (first finger up). Part of safety is listening (first finger by ear) to the leader, each other, and yourself.
• Middle Finger. No put-downs or discounting of others (shield middle finger from others with opposite hand), or yourself (shield middle finger from self with opposite hand).
• Ring Finger. Represents a commitment to support each other. One important way to support one another is to be willing to give and receive feedback, and be willing to change.
• Little Finger. Represents taking appropriate risks. The little finger is the weakest and could easily be harmed if it was working without the support of the rest.
• Shake Hands (as if shaking off water). This represents a willingness to let go. We can’t always solve every problem or resolve every conflict. We can accept that some things won’t reach a conclusion while we are together, and we can decide to move on.
• The Whole Hand. We are a group (the whole hand), with individual goals (thumb), and group goals (fingers). Both need to be respected to have the best function of the group.
• High Five or Jazz Hands (or whatever is trendy). When we keep our commitments to the Full Value Contract, we have plenty of fun!

Intentional Sequencing of the Adventure Experience

In order for the Do, Reflect, Apply Experiential Education model to be most effective, participants should have an opportunity to apply their learning from one activity to another, resulting in a series of activities being linked together. For best results, some time and thought should be invested in the best sequence for reaching group goals.

Experience has shown that the most effective sequences create a natural wave of high and low energy, and present increasing levels of risk over time. Early in a group’s development low-risk activities break down barriers and begin to build relationships. As time passes, the physical, mental, or emotional challenge of the activities should increase in order to continue to create an engaging environment. These activities may build to one or more peak experiences. Finally, the program should be brought to a natural conclusion with a closure activity.

Whether it is a few hours, a day, a week, or an entire year, a typical program begins with an introduction, followed by a few warm-up activities—quick, silly games that serve as deinhbitizers or icebreakers. From there, the program progresses to cooperative activities, then to trust activities, followed by problem solving initiatives, and finally finishing with some type of celebration or closure activity.

Every program is different, and rightly so, as inventiveness and spontaneity are important aspects. With this in mind, activities should be sequenced in a way that will move the group towards achieving their goals.

Here is a sample sequence of activities:

1. Introduction
2. Name Game
3. Safety Overview
4. Health Check
5. Warm-up and Stretch
6. Full Value Contract
7. Quick Silly Game
8. Adventure Experience(s)
9. Intentional Support and Trust Sequence
10. More Adventure Experience(s)
11. Final Debrief
12. Celebration or Closure

Developing sequences is explored in greater detail in Section III.

Ladder of Group Development

Just as there is a natural progression in a sequence of activities, groups can progress naturally towards greater levels of efficiency and effectiveness. This is represented by the Ladder of Group Development (Figure 5). Once groups cooperate with one another, they can practice support behaviors that help build trust among participants. When a group’s participants support each other, they can effectively solve initiatives and problems.

If a group lacks a basic foundation, they will often be unsuccessful in progressing to a higher level of accomplishment. It’s unlikely you would trust someone who refuses to cooperate with you, just as it is unlikely that you would let a conflict be resolved by someone you don’t trust. The solution is taking the time to build and sustain real relationships within the group.

Figure 5. The ladder of group development.

• Adhere to Collective Decision Making
• Take Turns: Communal Leadership is Shared
• Fearlessly Confront Conflict as Opportunity

• Take Responsibility for Each Other’s Emotional and Physical Safety
• Allow and Make Mistakes
• Communicate Your Boundaries
• Respect the Feelings of Others
• Take Risks

• No Put Downs
• Include Everyone, Work with Everyone
• Listen and Repeat What You Hear
• Show Respect for Each Other

Section II: The Adventurous Community

The 4-H Youth Development Program and the 4-H Adventure Education Program have a mission to strengthen life-skills in young people. Using the Adventure Education model, be it on a ropes course, a backpacking trip, a club meeting, or in a classroom, the objective is to build successful communities of individuals who are learning from themselves and each other.

In this section, a number of current theories and constructs that define youth development and group work are presented, as well as a brief exploration of the facilitator’s relationship to this process.

The Individual

A group is comprised of individual members, each with his and her own unique needs and aspirations. Part of a facilitator’s task is to recognize and build upon the individual differences of the group members. The goal is to provide an enriching experience for each individual, as well as the group as a whole. Basic theories of individual human development are listed below, and provide a foundation for understanding individuals and their behaviors.

Basic Human Needs

In 1943 Abraham Maslow developed a theory of motivation based on a hierarchy of human needs (Maslow 1943). His model focuses on the following basic human needs:

• Physical Safety. All humans have basic physiological needs which they must meet: food, air, shelter. People need to know that they are physically safe. If they don’t feel safe, this need preempts meeting any other needs. For young people, who often do not directly control this element of their lives, physical threats in unsupportive environments can be traumatizing.
• Belonging and Affection (Social Needs and Emotional Safety). People need affiliation. For youth, feelings of personal worth are often tethered to what others think of them. Affection or love is essential to personality development. Young people want to know that they are accepted unconditionally. Supportive groups can aid in meeting such needs. The desire to belong is natural.
• Independence and Power. Needing to act independently and to exert power over others are two sides of the same coin. Ultimately, the goal is to achieve a sense of competence and autonomy. Groups that share and encourage leadership can help keep the focus on communication and supportive relationships.
• Achievement and Self Esteem. People need to be recognized for their accomplishments. Youth want to know that their efforts are worthwhile and appreciated. People can also get a sense of achievement through what they do for others, as well as for themselves. Bear in mind that individual definitions of achievement will vary.
• New Experiences (Self Actualization). The true self emerges when we encounter new situations or new problems to solve, and we produce unique responses.

The resulting construct is provided to help facilitators understand the reasons why 4-H programs are structured the way they are. Facilitators are encouraged to find ways their programs can incorporate the Essential Elements. With the Essential Elements present, the evidence is clear: youth become caring, capable, and contributing adults.

Belonging

• A positive relationship with a caring adult. A caring adult acts as an advisor, guide, and mentor. The adult helps set boundaries and expectations for young people. The adult could be called a supporter, friend, and advocate.
• An inclusive environment (affirming, belonging). An inclusive environment is one that creates a sense of belonging, encourages and supports its members with positive and specific feedback. Healthy groups celebrate the success of all members and takes pride in the collective efforts of all.
• A safe environment—physically and emotionally. Youth should not fear physical or emotional harm while participating in a 4-H experience; whether from the learning environment, adults, other participants, or spectators.

Mastery

• Engagement in learning. An engaged youth is one who is mind-ful of the subject area, and builds relationships and connections in order to develop understanding. Through self-reflection, youth have the ability to self-correct and learn from experience. The engaged learner has a higher degree of self-motivation and an inexhaustible capacity to create.
• Opportunity for mastery. Mastery is the building of knowledge, skills, and attitudes; and the demonstration and competent use of this learning in the manner of a proficient practitioner. The level of mastery is dependent on the developmental ability of the individual child or youth. The development of mastery is a process over time.

Independence

• Opportunity to see oneself as an active participant in the future. To see one’s self in the future, is the ability to harness the hope and optimism to shape life choices that will facilitate the transition into adulthood.
• Opportunity for self-determination. Believing that one has impact over life’s events rather than passively submitting to the will and whims of others is self-determination. Youth must exercise a sense of influence over their lives, exercising their potential to become self-directing, autonomous adults.

Generosity

• Opportunity to value and practice service for others. Finding one’s self begins with losing yourself in the service of others. Service is a way for members to gain exposure to the larger community, and indeed, the world itself.

Ages and Stages of Development

Throughout our lives, our needs change. Youth have different needs at different ages, and will go about meeting those needs in different ways. 4-H capitalizes on the potential of youth to be of service to their peers and act as partners with adults. Listed below are general developmental characteristics for each age, and strategies to help facilitate experiential learning.

Table 1. Developmental Characteristics and Facilitator Strategies for Youth in Grades 4 to 5 (9 to 10 years old)

Characteristics	Facilitator Tips
Learn best when physically active.	Allow youth to participate in activities where they can use physical energy.
Have a special attachment to older youth.	Allow youth to choose an older youth to be a helper and role model.
Are easily motivated and eager to try something new.	Offer a wide variety of learning experiences. Use encouragement to keep them motivated.
Often have rapidly changing interests.	Use varied, short-term activities to keep them interested.
Seek acceptance by peer group.	Use the peer group to recognize good work. Applaud sincere attempts as well as successes.
Enjoy both cooperation and competition.	Plan activities that allow youth to work together, along with activities that have them compete with each other.
Show independence by seeking individual attention and sometimes disrupt the group.	Involve youth in selecting activities they would like. Give individual attention.
Have a natural curiosity. Constantly ask “why?”	Provide activities that allow youth to discover their own answers. Encourage them to share their personal discoveries.
Tend to want to judge in absolutes.	Provide opportunities to see the “middle ground.”
Need feelings of competence to enhance self-concept.	Provide activities which will let youth feel good about themselves and succeed. Recognition ceremonies before family and peers means a great deal to this age group.
Are able to consider other people’s perspectives.	Role playing, case studies, and stories illustrating other people’s viewpoints contribute to the development of empathy.

Source: Adapted from N4HCCS curricular materials, 2003.

Table 2. Developmental Characteristics and Facilitator Strategies for Youth in Grades 6 to 8 (11 to 13 years old)

Characteristics	Facilitator Tips
Are concerned about physical development.	Encourage learning experiences which promote healthy body image.
Are ready for in-depth, long-term learning experiences.	Activity should have increased expectations, provide more challenges, and permit deeper exploration of leadership roles. Provide hands-on and skill-centered experiences in specific subject matter.
Can take responsibility in planning and evaluating their own work.	Give youth responsibility for group activities, including planning, implementing, and evaluating.
Tend to avoid difficult tasks due to concerns about failing.	Encourage youth to participate in challenging tasks. Help them to succeed and acknowledge dedicated effort, as well as success.
Desire a sense of independence and want to make decisions, but still depend on adult guidance.	Establish guidelines that give parameters for youth to follow. Encourage them to work with adults and older teens to complete learning experiences and apprenticeships.
Seek heroes and idols.	Create opportunities for youth to practice leadership roles with coaching.
Tend to be self-conscious.	Activities should promote individual skill development, which promotes self-esteem. Avoid asking youth to share their work individually until they feel more comfortable in the group.
Are interested in learning more about their community.	Encourage activities which provide opportunities to explore the community.
Gain skills in social relations with peers and adults.	Provide activities which foster social interaction with peers and adults.
Feel peer-pressure; first from the same sex, then from the opposite sex.	Have group give encouragement to individuals.
Commonly feel infatuated.	Interest in others is often shown in contrary behavior, such as pushing and hair pulling. Allow for appropriate social interaction involving boys and girls. Let youth choose partners.
Enjoy doing things valued by peer group that lead to personal satisfaction and self-improvement.	Provide activities and experiences valued by the group.
Feel strong emotional attachment to older youth and adults.	Encourage youth to develop appropriate relationships with older youth and adults.
They are beyond the age of fantasy, but are still struggling with values.	Assist youth in making realistic choices. Review their plans, discuss alternatives, and help them weigh options before making decisions.
Can look at cause and effect situations.	Provide opportunities for exploring consequences of making different choices.
Are interested in activities of a physical nature.	Encourage fun, active learning experiences.

Source: Adapted from N4HCCS curricular materials, 2003.

Table 3. Developmental Characteristics and Facilitator Strategies for Youth in Grades 9 to 12 (14 to 18 years old)

Characteristics	Facilitator Tips
Express emerging personal philosophies.	Use activities where youth search for experiences which will allow them to identify their own philosophies. Provide outlets for self-expression.
Patterns of interest have become more definite.	Encourage more in-depth pursuit of leadership roles and life skills.
Enjoy discussing the world situation, as well as personal activities.	Encourage discussion of events and feelings.
Reach a higher level of abstract thinking and problem solving. Can analyze events that have multiple causes and effects.	Put youth into real life problem-solving situations.
Show strong desire for status in peer group.	Develop a climate in which youth are encouraged and supported by peers. Provide opportunities for youth to exercise their leadership skills.
Need and want a strong voice in planning their own program without adult supervision, but need help in anticipating consequences.	Encourage youth to plan programs with facilitation by adult leaders. Advise adults to provide guidance and support rather than direction.
May have feelings of inferiority and inadequacy. This can be widespread, although youth may be unaware that others feel similarly.	Encourage and help youth see their positive worth and talk about their feelings. Develop activities where youth hear how others cope with, and resolve, these feelings.

Source: Adapted from N4HCCS curricular materials, 2003.

Challenging the Whole Child

Adventure-based education challenges traditional education models, asserting that effective learning—necessary learning—isn’t purely cerebral (from the neck up), nor is it the job of the educated to pour knowledge into the “empty vessel” of the student.

Adventure education is constructivist in nature, asserting that meaning is derived from individual experience, and that everyone interprets experience differently. Several more recent constructs of youth development and learning echo these long-held sentiments of adventure-based theory. Summarized below are three such models: Multiple Intelligences (Gardener 1983), the 4-H Targeting Life Skills model (Hendricks 1996), and a 4-H Diagram of Social Emotional Skills. A closer inspection reveals how meaningful adventure-based experiences help youth develop many of the traits deemed as worthwhile, healthy, and necessary.

Multiple Intelligence Theory

Intelligence is the ability to find and solve problems and create products of value in one’s own culture.” — Dr. Howard Gardener

Multiple intelligence refers to the notion that people can be smart in a multitude of ways—at least 8 or 9 ways, according to criteria developed by Howard Gardner (Gardener 1983). In the past, intelligence has been viewed as a single factor, generally related to verbal and logical reasoning abilities. In contrast, Gardner suggests that verbal-linguistic skill and logical mathematical reasoning are only two of several intelligences. If intelligence refers to the ability to solve problems or fashion valued products, then multiple intelligences represent different methods and symbolic systems for problem-solving or creating products.

Learning Modalities

• Verbal and Linguistic: facility with words, languages.
• Logical and Mathematical: pattern recognition, abstract reasoning, calculation.
• Visual and Spatial: schematic visualization, graphic representation, mechanically adept.
• Bodily and Kinesthetic: learn through touch, movement, mimetic ability.
• Musical and Rhythmic: sensitivity, recognition, and reproduction of melody and rhythm.
• Naturalistic: recognizes relationships with nature, classification, identification.
• Interpersonal: effective communicator, empathetic, motivator.
• Intrapersonal: transpersonal sense of self, intuitive, concentration, spiritual.

Multiple intelligence theory is not an educational prescription or methodology, nor is it an end in itself. At the heart of Gardner’s philosophy is the understanding that each person is a unique individual with unique learning abilities and needs. Gardner encourages that learners receive instruction in a variety of learning domains: music, art, creative movement, drama, environmental awareness, interpersonal skills, thinking skills, and self-reflection. While we identify and provide opportunities for learners to more fully develop their talents in their strength areas, they can also be encouraged to explore other expressive styles, not just the ones that come easily.

Creating an inclusive adventure community could involve group chanting or singing, climbing, hiking, practicing balance, communicating feelings, or exploring group dynamics meta-cognitively. Ideas for processing in accord with different learning styles will be explored in Section III.

4-H Targeting Life Skills

While many programs of public education have become focused on benchmarks and standards for the measurement of academic knowledge, 4-H has maintained an interest in supporting the development of the whole child: head, heart, hands, and healthy lifestyles. Youth development is a process of mental, physical, social, and emotional growth, during which young people prepare to live productive and satisfying lives.

Facilitating learning communities and using adventure-based activities provides youth with numerous opportunities to develop important personal and social skills they aren’t likely to learn through traditional educational methods.

The 4-H Targeting Life Skills Model (Hendricks 1996) lists several life-skills youth develop when participating in experiential learning, and a number of these can easily be extracted as tangible outcomes of adventure based learning.

This model is designed to help facilitators select a few key life-skills to focus on in program development. While activities may touch on many life-skills, research suggests that choosing two or three, supports greater gains in life-skill development. Experience has demonstrated that adventure education lends itself particularly well to the development of life-skills, such as goal setting, self-responsibility, self-efficacy, problem solving, healthy lifestyle choices, communication, cooperation, teamwork, empathy and nurturing relationships. However, a skilled facilitator could address any life-skill though experiential learning.

For adventure facilitators, the life-skills wheel (Figure 6) is a great tool to use with the group or stakeholders to identify the skills the group wants to improve upon. A facilitator can then focus their debrief questions and observations on life-skill building that the group supports. The Targeting Life Skills Model is also supported through an online evaluation template.

Social Emotional Learning

The design of social emotional learning (SEL) is based on the predicted outcomes of participating in the processes by which we acquire life-skills, including the skills to deal with ourselves, others, relationships, and work in an effective manner (Figure 7). Daniel Goleman’s book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (Goleman 1995), and the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL 2013), both stress the importance of early developmental experiences on the acquisition of social emotional intelligence.

Carefully delivered adventure activities can provide an opportunity for the development of social emotional intelligence that is not coercive, prescriptive, or manipulative. A facilitator can help participants recognize and speak up for their needs. The most meaningful insights for individuals as they participate in adventure education experiences, are often those insights that encourage social and emotional growth. Experiential learning, such as that provided through 4-H, is at the nexus of personal growth.

The Group

The changes that take place in individuals through adventure education are often enhanced by the presence of a supportive group that shares a common agreement on communication and goals. While the Full Value Contract helps a group communicate its needs for a physically and emotionally safe space to work within, helping a group become focused on their goals, empowers them to succeed.

Creating Intentional Communities

Effective facilitators grow to recognize that the greatest power of change comes from within the group. Groups evolve like individuals, with goals, aspirations and challenges to overcome. Here are the principles that support adventure-based education:

• Shared Membership. In a community, it’s important that everyone feels welcome and included. If individuals don’t feel accepted and valued for who they are, they are unlikely to take healthy risks and try new things. Furthermore, they are unlikely to fully contribute to the best of their ability.
• Shared Purpose. Creating a meaningful reason for being together and engaging in activities is vital to the success of the community. This can be created as a motto, a mission statement, or something more symbolic, like a metaphor introduced by the facilitator. Each member of the community should be able to recognize the relevance of their engagement.
• Shared Norms. Creating behavior-expectations establishes the culture of the community. Taking time to develop shared norms is the first step to creating a safe environment where participants are willing to take healthy risks that lead to growth. Regularly referring to these norms, and reflecting on how well the community is living up to them, is critical for ongoing success.
• Shared Skills. A community needs to recognize its social, emotional, and intellectual assets that will allow it to be successful. The intentional recognition and development of these life-skills is foundational for a community to successfully reach their goals.
• Shared Outcomes. Creating meaningful and shared goals and objectives is essential for a group to focus as a learning community. As a community, a common understanding of their goals and targeted outcomes will increase their level of success.

Stages of Group Development

Adapted from “Developmental Sequence in Small Groups”. (Tuckman 1965).

Groups, like people, go through developmental stages as they form and evolve. It’s very helpful for a small-group facilitator to understand this concept; to be able to recognize what stage the group is in, and to know when the group moves to a new stage. This knowledge affects how the facilitator sequences, briefs, leads, and debriefs the activities.

The nomenclature and general characteristics of the first four stages of group development—forming, norming, storming and performing—were put together by Tuckman (Tuckman 1965). The fifth stage “transforming,” was added later. This model can help groups understand what they have been through, or what they are going through. It is important to keep in mind is that this process is not strictly linear. A group can move back and forth between stages at any time (Schoel, Prouty and Radcliffe 1988).

Each stage in the model can be viewed in the form of a question, as shown below.

Forming: “Who am I in this group?”

This is the initial stage that a group goes through when participants first come together or when there is major group restructuring, such as a significant change in membership. According to Schoel, confession, anxiety, and a willingness to please, are some of the traits exhibited by members in this stage. There is usually a scramble for leadership, with members acting as individuals that do not effectively contribute to the group. Johnson and Johnson added the determination of rules and procedures to the forming stage (Johnson and Johnson 1994). In adventure education, this is the development and implementation of a Full Value Contract.

The task of a facilitator is to help the group pass through this development stage on its journey toward its goals. To help alleviate anxiety, and begin to find commonality, it is useful to focus on icebreakers, name games, and simple group challenges. Building on Schoel’s idea that in the forming stage members are willing to please, facilitators can help the group start to recognize its collective strength by giving it a simple problem to solve.

Important components of the problem-solving quest should assure that:

1. all members of the group participate in the problem-solving
2. the group sets a common goal, and
3. there is a high chance of success in solving the problem.

Schoel points out that this initial success is a good reference point for the group when things aren’t going as well. When someone questions the facilitator’s authority, or some kind of conflict arises in the group, the group has moved to the next stage.

Storming: “Who am I with others in this group?”

This stage may be uncomfortable for both the facilitator and the participants, but it is essential stage for a group to go through. It is through the storming process that the participants can answer the questions, “Is this group safe?” and, “Can the facilitator (or self-elected leaders) handle us?” Schoel defines this stage as a time when alliances are formed, negative behavior happens, and leaders are tested.

Johnson and Johnson see the group members differentiating themselves through conflict. Some of this conflict comes from members not taking responsibility for their own actions and needs. They also use the term rebellion in defining the storming stage: rebellion against the leader, the procedures, the rules, or even the outcome. A much less emotionally-charged, but quite useable definition, is when conversation moves beyond neutral subjects like names and shoe size. The underlying motive, from a participant’s perspective, is to test, “How safe am I in this group? Can I express my opinions, ask to have my needs met, or disagree with another member, without being ostracized or ridiculed?”

Johnson and Johnson came up with a good metaphor for facilitating this stage: “a group at this stage is like teaching a child to ride a bicycle; one runs alongside to prevent the child from falling, but must let loose so the child can learn to balance on his or her own.”

Facilitators need to be there to help the group understand their Full Value Contract, and to keep the process emotionally and physically safe; while at the same time, letting go of control so the group will take ownership in its own process and success. The group needs to move toward setting and monitoring its own boundaries, as opposed to having them imposed from the outside.

As the group passes through this stage, it needs activities to be well defined, so the participants have something with which to gauge their progress and interactions, as well as something to rebel against. When the group reaches its transition point to the next stage, differences among members will be accepted, and the group as a whole, will be internally focused. It is worth noting that participants arriving in a group following a storming stage have additional challenges to face towards inclusion.

Norming: “What are we going to do?”

By this stage, the relationships in the group have been defined. In the norming stage, Schoel sees the group operating as a unit, using its own strengths, and moving away from dependence on the facilitator. They take pride in their accomplishments, and are able to confront each other in terms of their goals and behaviors. The markers that Johnson uses to denote this stage are cohesiveness and commitment. The group discovers new ways to work together and sets norms for appropriate behavior. It takes ownership in itself, in other words “it’s our group” instead of “it’s the facilitator’s group.” The members have become committed to each other. The group begins to be responsible for itself and presents a united front to the outside world; values, questions, and motivation can be discussed openly.

It is at this stage of development that group members solidify their bonding process. They start taking responsibility for each other. It is now safe to share ideas, thoughts, and feelings with the group—which leads to greater trust. In other words, the group has become interdependent. What this means for facilitators, is that they can give the group more open-ended problems to solve. The ownership of rules, process, and outcome now belongs more to the group than to the facilitator.

Performing: “How are we going to do it?”

When a group reaches the performing stage, they are ready to look outside of themselves. Groups in this stage may be open to outsiders, seeking contact with the wider community and trying to extend their influence. They get work done. Developing proficiency in achieving goals and flexibility in patterns of working together, are some of the things that Johnson and Johnson see taking place at this stage. This flexibility can be observed in several ways. The group spends time on both task and group maintenance as needed. The group is truly collaborative, recognizing, using, and valuing each member’s skills and abilities. Controversy is encouraged and conflicts are openly confronted and resolved.

One of the key ingredients needed for a group to reach this stage is time. A one-day or short-time experience usually will not get a group to this stage. How much time it will take depends on a number of variables, including the make-up of the group, the goals they are trying to achieve, the planned duration of the group, the sequence of activities, and the skill of the facilitator.

Transforming

This stage usually occurs when a group comes to an end, or goes through a major restructure and a shift in goals. Johnson and John-son point out that the longer a group has been together, and the more bonded they are, the harder this process is. It is important to let a group process their feelings of loss and what the group has meant to them. Closing ceremonies and ritual can be helpful at this stage. As a group facilitator, do not discount your own feeling of loss. It is very appropriate for you to be an active part of a closing process.

There are many activities which can help this process. For some groups that have the time, it is useful to let them plan the closure of the group. Be aware that the closer the group gets to the end, the more you will see behavior changes. The members may start acting out, and the group may have a hard time staying on task. It is sometimes useful to point these changes out and get the group to deal with them.

Group Behaviors

(Adapted with permission from Functional Roles of Group Members, Benne and Sheats 1948).

Behavior in a group can be viewed in terms of what its purpose or function seems to be. When a group member says something, is that person trying to get the group’s tasks accomplished (task-oriented behaviors), to improve or fix relationships among members (maintenance-oriented behaviors), or to meet some personal need or goal without regard to the group’s problems (self-oriented behaviors)? As a group grows and its members’ needs become integrated with group goals, there will be less self-oriented behavior and more task or maintenance behavior.

Consider how the behaviors listed below align with our basic needs.

Task-Oriented Behaviors

Task oriented behaviors ensure that the group’s task will be accomplished.

• Initiating. For any group to function, some person(s) must be willing to take some initiative and propose ideas or procedures. These can be seemingly trivial statements like, “let’s build an agenda,” or “it’s time we moved on to the next item;” but without them, little task-related activity would occur. People would either sit in silence or develop side conversations.
• Seeking or Giving Information or Opinions. The clear and efficient flow of information, facts, and opinions is essential to task accomplishment. Giving-type statements, such as, “I have some information that may be relevant,” or “My own opinion in this matter is…,” ensure that decisions are based on full information. Information-seeking statements not only help the seeker, but the entire group. This person asks for, as well as offers ideas.
• Clarifying and Elaborating. Many useful inputs into group work get lost if this task-related behavior is missing. Clarifiers communicate a listening and collaborative stance. The clarifier illuminates or builds upon ideas or suggestions of others.
• Summarizing. At various points during a group’s work, it is very helpful for someone to summarize and pull together the discussion. This gives the entire group an opportunity to pause, step back, and see how far they have come, where they are, and how much further they must go to complete their work.
• Consensus Testing. Many times a group’s work must result in a consensus decision. At various points in the meeting, the statement, “Have we made a decision on that point?” can be very helpful. Even if the group is not ready to commit to a decision, it serves to remind everyone that a decision needs to be made, and as such, it adds positive work tension into the group. This behavior explores whether the group may be nearing a decision.

• Manipulating: Introducing or supporting ideas that meet one’s personal needs and interests regardless of whether they are in the best interest of the group.
• Clowning: Clowning, joking, or mimicking, which disrupts the work of the group.
• Seeking Attention: Attempting to call attention to one’s self by loud or excessive talking, extreme ideas, or unusual behavior.
• Withdrawing: Acting indifferent or passive, resorting to excessive formality, day-dreaming, doodling, whispering to others, or wandering from subject.
• Competing: Conscious or unconscious striving to rival others. An effort to appear more competent, useful, and able than others in the group in order to gain favor from important people.

Rules and Rights of Group Work

These rules and rights of groups, like the Full Value Contract or shared principles of learning communities, can help mitigate self-oriented behaviors.

Ground Rules for Effective Group Work

• All members will actively listen and participate.
• Test assumptions without being competitive.
• Share relevant information, be specific and use examples.
• Focus on interests, NOT positions. Suspend ego.
• Agree on what important words mean.
• Make statements and invite questions and comments.
• Explain reasoning behind statements.
• Openly disagree. Discuss the un-discussable issues.
• Do not take cheap shots or otherwise distract the group.
• Do self-critiques.
• Do your homework. Prepare in advance for meetings.

Group Members Individual Rights

• Members have the right to be silent.
• Members have the right to be heard without interruption.
• Members have the right to ask questions.
• Members have the right to their own opinions.
• Members have the responsibility to respect others.
• Members have the right to confidentiality.

The Facilitator

Being an effective facilitator can be demanding, and requires highly developed skills. Facilitators must be willing to share their skills and knowledge on a personal and professional basis with a variety of people. Because concern for physical and emotional safety is a critical foundational piece of the program, they must develop the highest level of expertise in interpersonal and technical skills, as well as demonstrate a working understanding of experiential learning.

The Role of an Experiential Facilitator

Experiential facilitators are individuals who work with groups of people, presenting games and activities in a way that is designed to build community and develop life-skills. Fun is a considerable element of this process, however, the philosophy within the 4-H Adventure Program is that this is more than just a recreational adventure—it is an educational process.

A facilitator doesn’t direct a learning process; a facilitator guides a learning process. A facilitator doesn’t provide all the answers to the group; he or she creates a process that allows participants to learn from each other and the experience. Facilitators don’t shape the learning outcomes; they allow the group to shape its outcomes. Facilitators avoid pushing their ideas on a group; they support group members in communicating ideas.

Facilitators implement an adventure-based learning model, take participants out of their standard frame of reference, and allow them to see things from a different point of view. However, the experience doesn’t end with the completion of the activity. Facilitators help participants relate what they have learned back into their regular life.

Facilitators build a framework for support by:

• Allowing participants to share pieces of themselves without fearing that they’ll be laughed at or ignored;
• helping participants to recognize that there are people who support them;
• and allowing participants to take appropriate risks within a supportive environment.

Facilitators set a fun and energetic tone. If the facilitator demonstrates by example that it’s okay to look silly, participants will feel more willing to take emotional or physical risks.

Identifying Stakeholder Objectives

Just as facilitators will help participants identify their individual and group goals, it is important to have a solid understanding of the participating stakeholder’s objectives for using adventure-based education programs (stakeholders are the people who contract with a facilitator for program services). Use the Spectrum of Adventure Based Activities model (Figure 1) to help those seeking facilitation to understand their objectives.

• Are the stakeholders just looking for recreation?
• Are they trying to build a more cohesive team?
• Are they trying to identify their organizational objectives?

Knowing what your audience needs will help you to design a meaningful sequence. Likewise, knowing when you are being asked to facilitate out of your field of experience is also important. If, for example, someone needs facilitation for therapeutic intervention, and you are not a qualified therapist, you should decline and refer them to someone who is qualified to provide the service they seek.

Some broad examples of stakeholder goals might include helping their group members communicate more clearly with one another; helping their group work together better; or helping their workers take more ownership in their work.

Adaptive Leadership: A Time and a Place for Everything

The facilitator’s approach to experiential teaching and learning is important. Generally, when a facilitator first engages with a new group, he or she may be more directive, helping people make connections, setting boundaries, and the like. As the participants become more comfortable with each other, and begin to demonstrate signs of norming (operating as a unit, using their own strengths, and moving away from dependence on the facilitator), the facilitator can reduce the amount of direct leadership provided. This allows for the group’s natural leadership processes and structure to develop. Leaders emerging from the group will also demonstrate some degree of directive or supportive leadership. Reflecting on how we lead can be an enriching component of adventure education.

Adaptive leadership is based on the premise that there is “no one right way to lead.” Each style of leadership has its strengths and limitations. Leadership can be as unique as individuals. Good leaders are able to maximize their effectiveness, positively impact performance and group satisfaction, and task completion by adapting their leadership style to the situation. They recognize the need to intentionally alter their style to fit the situation, the needs of the people involved, and the established goals; rather than demanding the situation and people fit their style. This allows a facilitator to approach each situation as a unique, new set of problems, goals, and recourses.

• Directive or Impersonal Leadership helps a group that needs structure and boundaries established.
• Interactive or Interpersonal Leadership engages the group through coaching, participation, and guided reflection.
• Non-active or Intrapersonal Leadership gives space to participants to reflect upon their own experiences and act accordingly.

It is important to recognize the needs of the group and match one’s leadership style to those needs. A leadership style mismatched to a group’s needs could have a considerably negative impact on the growth and development of the group.

A Code of Ethics

Adventure facilitators are acting in a highly professional capacity. One of the criteria required to be a professional facilitator is a code of ethical behavior. Listed below are some of the commonly held tenants of this profession.

Uncertain Outcome

Since adventures are defined as experiences with uncertain outcomes, facilitators employing adventure-learning methods frequently avoid rescuing participants—that is, giving away the answers to difficult tasks, solving problems they encounter along the way, or making decisions for them. As an experienced facilitator, it is easy to know it all and be swayed into helping a group, but that takes the success of learning away from the community the facilitator is there to serve. By giving away the ending, the spirit of true adventure is destroyed and the learning potential is severely compromised. The only exception is when real dangers are present. If the group appears to be heading for trouble, accident, or injury, then the facilitator’s intervention and assistance are expected.

Challenge by Choice vs. Coercion

Perceived freedom of choice is a necessary antecedent to adventure. Take away the participant’s power to decide for themselves by forcing their involvement, and they are likely to attribute success or failure to the person who made them do it, and not to themselves. Not only is this somewhat morally inappropriate, it may border on negligence; if injury should occur, the participants can claim they were forced to comply against their will. Facilitators using adventure-learning methods avoid coercing participants, and prefer to operate under Project Adventure’s axiom of Challenge by Choice (Project Adventure 1991) as a means to diffuse any mandated or obligated participation by a higher authority.

For facilitators, this may mean encouraging participants to attempt tasks even when they say, “I can’t do it.” However, the instant the participant asserts, “I won’t do it!” the facilitator must back off and honor the decision.

While the method is not foolproof, it does provide reasonable guidance. For some participants, being able to say “no” is far more important than completing the task (and ignoring their affirmation can prevent a major breakthrough). Ultimately, choice creates ownership for the participant.

Perceived Risk vs. Actual Risk

Participants in effective adventure activities will take physical, emotional, and social risks. Some fear increases personal motivation and challenge. It is desirable that participants perceive a risk to their safety, even though the risk is actually minimal. The conditions of a physical environment evoking feelings of intimidation are much better than having it come from another human being. This is one reason why adventure challenges have traditionally been set outside of the participant’s usual environment. On outdoor adventures, facilitators must carefully teach and monitor technical skills, use of equipment, and safety concepts. After participants are informed of the prescribed safety precautions for each activity, they assume responsibility for their participation by making a verbal commitment to participate at their chosen level.

Adventure experiences provide natural or inherent risks, and these facilitator-mediated risks provide participants with opportunities to grow through their inhibitions. Facilitators should not present risks that present a real danger to participants.

Empowerment

Another prerequisite to adventure is the use of personal competence and the opportunity to exercise control over one’s environment and actions; thus attempting to influence the way an adventure turns out. Consider rafting in a motorized craft—it is certainly exciting—but it’s more chance than challenge, because success and failure is in the hands of the engine operator, and all the participants do is hang on. Put paddles in their hands, and they are likely to be empowered by the challenge, and will likely learn from their own successes and failures.

The “amusement park” approach to adventure programming, in which participants are removed from attending to safety and group responsibility, is a good example of disempowerment. Such exclusion can lead a participant to further dependence on program or facilitator expertise. It can also interfere with the development of a strong team, caring for group members, and may even be injurious, as safety is an attitude to be shared by all.

Natural Consequences

People learn from their mistakes, and this is one of the fundamental premises of adventure programming. For this reason, facilitators can never afford to be put in a position where they give reward or punishment for a participant’s success or failure. The consequences of participants’ decisions must be real and natural (such as enjoying a beautiful view and sense of accomplishment from reaching the summit, or the embarrassment of getting lost and walking an extra two miles into nightfall).

Flexibility

Flexibility is one of the reasons why experiential education is so powerful. Adventure programming allows each participant to grow regardless of where they are starting. Non-experiential education techniques often teach to a fictitious person called “Norma Normal” or “Norm” (the middle or average person in the group). By doing so, these practices neglect the people who need more challenge (and thus, are bored), and those who need less challenge (and are anxious). Rarely does “Norm” ever exist. Good facilitators recognize that an adventure is a state-of-mind, which fluctuates according to each participant’s perceptions of situational risks and personal competence. Flexible facilitators are pre-pared to offer a range of challenges to participants in the same activity (such as a different craft for paddling, or various climbing routes for the same cliff).

Furthermore, if a facilitator is working on improving communication, and finds a lack of trust a barrier, the facilitator must be flexible enough to change the program activities to evolve with the needs of the participants.

Sound Judgment

Sound judgment is a critical component of the safety and effectiveness of adventure programming. A facilitator needs to monitor their personal situations that can impact their judgment, such as personal issues or health concerns. Facilitators need to be open to improvement of judgment skills through peer feedback and skills evaluation. More information on judgment and behavior expectations can be found in the 4-H Code of Conduct.

Confidentiality

For groups to be more open, a level of confidentiality needs to exist between participants and facilitators. Participants should agree to honor the confidentiality of the experience, and what arises during and after the adventure process. When facilitators have discussions regarding participants’ challenges, those discussions should be limited to improving participant experiences and be held in professional confidence. Certain job requirements, child protection, and safety may be reasons to break confidentiality. Contact your local 4-H staff for support if needed.

Experiential Processing

Adventure experiences should be debriefed after they have taken place to avoid losing experiential learning potential. Adventure without reflection is bound to be good recreational fun, but not our organizational goal. Similarly, giving participants an opportunity to apply what they are learning from an experience, or debrief, helps ensure that the learning has the opportunity to transfer to other experiences.

Environmental Protection

Adventure programs were borne out of wilderness experiences and have strong ties to the environment. We recognize synergy and interdependence of living systems as foundational principles of the work we do, and respect and preserve the natural environments in which we work.

Section III: The Art of Facilitation

Introduction to Facilitation

In Section III, the details of the processes through which facilitators provide meaningful experiences to adventure participants. Remember, facilitation is a skill that improves with experience, and the best facilitators never lose sight of fun.

The Process

Adventure Wave Theory

Adventure Programming operates on the adventure wave theory (Figure 8), which allows for peaks, valleys, turbulence, excitement, periods of calm, and periods of activity. When one wave is finished, another one follows. It is an ongoing and continuous process. Not all waves are the same size, but all should be driven by the energy of established goals. The facilitator makes ongoing assessments of participants during activities and debriefs. This reflection is a vital part of experiential education, and possibly the hardest skill for a facilitator to develop. Note in Figure 8 below, Safety, Individual and Group Goals, Challenge by Choice, and the like, are the bedrock to the wave theory.

Assessing the Group

The art of facilitation involves the constant assessment of the group and the adaptation of the sequence, based on the new information that ongoing assessment provides. The assessment begins the moment the facilitator starts discussing the group objectives with the organizing stakeholder (see Section II, Identifying Stakeholder Objectives). Once work has started with a group, an “on-the-fly” assessment can lead to changes in a debriefing plan, or the cessation of an activity for a safety or learning intervention. Using established assessment tools helps the facilitator gather information on the group and allows for structured discussion with other facilitators. One such tool is GRABBSS (Goals, Readiness, Affect, Behavior, Body, Stage, Setting), and covers most aspects of a group assessment (see below).

The Five Second Scan: Building Facilitator Observation Skills

A facilitator’s primary task is to monitor and observe the group for various physical or behavioral changes. This information is used for safety and better facilitation. With so many elements of an experience to assess, facilitators must condition themselves to repeatedly stand back from the activity to make a quick assessment of the group. The idea emerged that this takes about 5 seconds, hence a 5-Second Scan. Facilitator proximity is being aware of ones own presence, location, and impact on and within the group. Each adventure program shares common items to scan for, in addition to specific items, such as goals.

Goals

• How does the activity relate to the group and individual goals that have been set?

Readiness

• Is the group ready to do the activity? Will they endanger themselves or others? Do they have the ability to attempt or complete? What will you have to do to change the event to compensate for lack of readiness? Readiness determines levels of instruction and safety considerations.

Affect

• What is the feeling of the group? What kinds of sensations are they having? What is the level of empathy or caring in the group?

Behavior

• How is the group acting? Are they resistive? Disruptive? Agreeable? Are they more self-involved, or group-involved? Are there any interactions that are affecting the group, both positive and negative? How cooperative are they?

Body

• What kind of physical shape are they in? How tired are they? How comfortable are they with physical engagement? How do they see their own bodies? Do your participants have a history of substance abuse? Are they on medication? Are there invisible disabilities?

Stage

• At which group development stage (forming, storming, norming, performing) is the group? Groups will go through levels of functioning. Having a schema to describe these levels provides another means of assessment.

Setting

• Where is the activity taking place? What is the relationship of the participants to that setting? This could take questions of culture, physical and environmental concerns, comfort, and familiarity into consideration.

Sequencing the Adventure Experience

A rigid sequence will not serve the needs of a group experiencing an adventure-based program. There are a variety of reasons why this is true, but the most important one is that groups will never experience the exact same process. Because of this, facilitators must be willing to adjust their sequence and pace in order to fully meet the needs of the group. Each wave in a sequence should build on the one before it, and all should be designed to move the group towards its goals.

The following pieces, when built into a sequence, make for a cohesive educational adventure, which should yield plentiful learning opportunities. These include lead-up activities and goal identification (to help group formation); followed by the experiential components of the brief, the activity, and its’ debrief. Understanding the components of the adventure experience will make adjustments and accommodations easier to facilitate.

Lead-Up Activities

These activities, which include goal setting, games, deinhibitizers, establishing a Full Value Contract, support and trust building, and initiatives, are essential as they allow time for the facilitator to assess the group’s abilities and potential, while giving the group an opportunity to get acquainted or become comfortable with one another on new terms. Everyone engaged should recognize that the group and its goals are the focus, not whether they get through all of the activities or not. The tone set by the facilitator during this time will affect the group’s experience in great measure.

In the introduction, individuals should be told what to expect from the adventure program. Their pre-conceived expectations often create a barrier to learning from the unexpected. Be clear with the group about your role as a facilitator: to ensure safety, instruct, facilitate, observe, raise issues, and clarify. Simultaneously, a facilitator should be clear about what they are not there to do: to force people to change, to judge, or to lay opposing values on them.

Checking In

At the beginning of the day, the facilitator may “check in” by asking if there are any physical or emotional issues the participants want to share with the group. This pre-brief can be delivered in as many creative ways as debriefs.

Deinhibitizers

Any time a new group of people assembles it is a little awkward. Quick Silly Games (QSG) are simple games and ice-breakers that help people feel more at ease and set a tone of fun for the experience. Name games are also very useful when a group is unfamiliar with one another. QSG can be used anytime a group needs to decompress or pick up energy. They don’t require debriefing.

Full Value Contract

As previously mentioned in this manual, the facilitator should establish a Full Value Contract with a group early on, and affirm Challenge by Choice. When the group is in the forming and norming stages, revisit these agreements as necessary, to pose questions when agreements are not met and to applaud the group when they are.

Goal Setting

During adventure activities there are rules, goals, or directives to initiatives that frequently occur, or the facilitator may ask a team to plan their goals before beginning an activity. Consciously keeping a group attuned to their goals, is an important and productive part of the adventure process. On occasion, a facilitator may stop an activity halfway through, and ask the participants to evaluate the feasibility of their strategies. Making goals as a group is an important activity in assertiveness, communication, critical thinking, and commitment.

Guidelines for Goal Setting

(Adapted from Sharp and Cox 1970)

To set effective goals, it is important that one observe the following guidelines. A goal must be:

• Conceivable. You must be able to conceptualize the goal so that it is understandable, and then be able to identify that goal to a group.
• Believable. In addition to being consistent with our personal value system, you must believe you can reach the goal. Few people can believe a goal that they’ve never seen achieved by someone else. This may have implications for goal-setting with socio-economically deprived groups and individuals.
• Achievable. The goals set must be attainable with your given strengths and abilities. Younger audiences need more assistance in identifying practical goals.
• Controllable. Goals should be within the boundaries of a group or individual’s influence.
• Measurable. Your goal must be stated so that it is measurable in time and quantity. For example, “By 3 p.m. Friday, we will have each led the group through at two activities.”
• Desirable. Your goal should be something that you, and each member of the group, really want to do. Whatever your ambition, it should be one that you want to fulfill, rather than something you feel you should do.
• Stated with No Alternative. Set one goal at a time. Goals can change as you progress, but a group should not be divided in focus.
• Growth-Facilitating. Goals should be positive, so that you can build on them in a healthy way. Help participants restate their negative goals in positive terms.

The Brief

The first problem for all of us, men and women, is not to learn, but to unlearn.”

— Gloria Steinem

How many times have you heard a student say, “What’s the point?” or “Why are we doing this?” Groups need to have a context for why they are engaging in an activity. Creating context is a very important step in the adventure wave called briefing.

Briefing is the facilitator’s opportunity to paint a common picture for the group, and give them the information they will need to plan, set objectives, and make a successful attempt of the task.

Briefing creates a sense of excitement, fun, and adventure. It also focuses the group on the upcoming task, which could be an adventure activity, a 4-H fundraiser, a community service learning project, or the fair. Briefing can also be used to bridge your group to their previous experiences and knowledge.

In this stage the facilitator explains the objectives and safety concerns of an activity in a clear and understandable manner. Caution is given to facilitators to avoid explaining the activity more than necessary. The activity and the process should belong to the group.

The use of creative and fun story lines can help create a sense of adven-ture. An appropriate metaphor can also help to make the activity more meaningful.

In sequential activities, the facilitator can remind the group of their previous experiences, and ask how they can build on what they have already learned about their process. When appropriate, the briefing is also a good time to set group goals.

Good briefing includes the following parts:

• A story line, metaphor or frame for the activity.
• Goals and objectives of the activity.
• Directives of the activity (the rules).
• Safety considerations.

Framing

Framing is the way the facilitator set up the stage of an activity. The use of a thoughtful frame or well-placed metaphor can greatly increase the relevance of a task or activity to the group. For instance, a rock face about to be climbed by a participant might represent obstacles in the individual’s life; while the rope represents their support from family, friends, and school. Another example is presenting a 4-H member faced with a stubborn fitting and showing animal with the metaphor of family members or friends who refuse to cooperate. A good frame provides a story or metaphor, which will become important in transferring skills learned in an activity, back to what the group or individual does on a regular basis (such as communication, accountability, cooperation).

Directives

A second piece of briefing is informing the group of the directives for the activity. These are sometimes referred to as rules, but a more accurate explanation would be setting up the boundaries and describing the “nuts and bolts” of the activity. Directives let the group know what they are to do and how they are to do it. For instance, if a group is told they need to plan an activity that will help improve the appearance of the community within the next month, directives might include budget, action assignments, and safety considerations. A ropes course activity is another example. Here, the facilitator informs the group of the task they are being asked to complete. For instance, “You need to get the whole group from one side of the cable to the other side of the cable without stepping off, and everyone must stay connected as a group.”

The conditions a group must follow in accomplishing the task are part of the directives. These conditions can be very specific. Narrowing the scope of the task down, is often done for safety reasons. On the other hand, with high functioning groups, the facilitator may purposely leave the directives vague and sketchy, allowing the group to define their own conditions for success.

Briefing for Safety

With all of the emphasis put on framing, directives, and group process, it is easy to lose sight of safety. Beginning leaders are encouraged to emphasize and pay attention to their delivery of safety instructions, and leave the metaphors to an experienced co-facilitator. An experienced facilitator should be able to cover both the group process and safety concerns of an activity comfortably. When in doubt, a prudent facilitator should consider choosing an activity that they are more experienced in leading.

Discussing safety concerns with a group during the briefing of an activity is an excellent way to focus their attention on the actual risk involved in an activity. For instance, if a facilitator was working with youth around large animals it would be advisable to cover the appropriate level of caution necessary to avoid being kicked, stepped on, or bitten. Discussing safe spotting techniques for low challenge courses, communicates shared trust and shared risk taking. Making participants aware of the safety concerns also allows them to make an informed decision on whether or not they wish to participate. This is part of the Challenge by Choice concept.

It is important for a facilitator to present the actual risk in such a way that it balances with the perceived risk, and does not intimidate the group. A useful strategy for this is to ask the participants what they see as safety concerns for the activity. This empowers the group, gives them practice in taking responsibility, and allows the leader to assess the group’s level of awareness regarding safety issues.

Groups that are less skilled at taking care of themselves and others, or have exhibited unsafe behaviors in the past, may need to hear and repeat back safety concerns before the framing or objectives. This ensures that they are listening to the safety instructions rather than visualizing themselves doing the activity or thinking of a plan. A leader can also repeat safety concerns several times during a briefing, or even during an activity, if it becomes necessary.

Ultimately, it is the facilitator’s job to make sure that the group understands all of the potential risks before engaging in an activity.

Additional Briefing Techniques

Altering Directives

Directives can be altered to meet the group’s skill level. For instance, setting directives lower can help a group achieve a feeling of success (as long as the activity doesn’t become unsafe); or directives can be more stringent, forcing a group to struggle before finding a way to complete the task. Setting directives so that a task appears achievable when it actually is not, will allow participants to cope with falling short of expectations and require them to redefine success (Did the group work together? Did everyone have fun?).

Directives may include limitations such as the number of required spotters, time allotted to plan or complete the task, physical boundaries, numbers of participants who may participate at once, and other “Dis-Abilities” (challenges or tasks that take away one or more of their senses or abilities).

Many of these alterations to directives can be done on-the-fly as a facilitator re-assesses skill levels in the group.

When planning an activity, a facilitator should never forget to factor in fun. Activities should be safe, but also engaging and inclusive, promoting a sense of adventure and personal challenge.

For facilitators, the attainment of an activity objective is actually of secondary importance. The process, the interactions, and learning that the group accomplishes during the activity are the facilitator’s focus. Successful facilitators are focused on the group members in the present moment. The metaphors and framing can help the participants make the connection between what was learned from interactions during the activity, and how to apply it to interactions with others outside the group. This connection, called transference, will be covered in the section on Debriefing.

Using Dis-Abilities

Dis-Abilities are challenges or tasks given to participants that take away one or more of their senses or abilities. Dis-Abilities usually create unfamiliar and unexpected responses, and as a result, raise the level of disequilibrium in participants and the group. This disorientation can facilitate in the restructuring of an individual’s beliefs.

Facilitators can use Dis-Abilities at any time or with any event, and the educational and therapeutic uses are unlimited. Deciding the who, what, where and when of Dis-Abilities, creates endless possibilities. It’s important to know the individuals well, so the Dis-Ability creates a constructive level of anxiety and not a destructive one. Stretching limits is vital, as is trying to ensure success for the individual and group. If the level of anxiety becomes too high, the facilitator should consider removing the Dis-Ability. Dis-Abilities can be used to make events more challenging for groups and individuals.

Another reason to use Dis-Abilities is to help individuals expand their potential. They are unable to rely solely on their strengths, like being verbal, being a leader, or using their physical power. The disequilibrium caused by Dis-Abilities compels participants to develop other abilities. When using Dis-Abilities, processing (de-briefing) the experience is extremely important in order to raise individual levels of awareness, and to increase the chances that participants will transfer the learning to other life challenges.

The “locus of control” is the extent to which participants believe they can control events that affect them. There are both external and internal locus of control. An example of external locus of control would be for a participant to use a blindfold; an example of internal locus of control would be having the participant close their eyes.

Below are common Dis-Abilities that can be used, and issues or themes to be gleaned when processing:

• Non-sighted. Participants are given a blindfold to put over their eyes. Issues include powerlessness, being out of control, trust in others or a higher power, sense of the unknown or unexpected, and use of new senses or ways of knowing. This Dis-Ability is particularly well suited for individuals in recovery from chemical dependency. A questions to ask might be, “What are you blind to in your future or recovery?”
• Nonverbal. Participants are unable to speak to others. This is good to use with a leader or take-charge type person. Issues include powerless, communicating in new ways, reliance on others, awareness of new senses, and being in new roles. A question to ask may be, “What things in your life are you speechless about?”
• Paralyzed. Participants are unable to use one or both of their arms or legs. This is good to use with someone who relies on their physical strength. Issues include disabilities, powerlessness, reliance on body versus mind, feeling like a victim, dependency, teamwork, sense of the unexpected, and vulnerabilities. A question to ask may be, “What paralyzes you in work, relationships, or life?”
• Joined. Participants are connected side-by-side, like conjoined twins, and must move together without any individual getting between them. This is a good Dis-Ability to use in couple or family work. Issues include compatibility, dependency on others, cooperation, enmeshment, consequences of how one affects the other, and commitment. This Dis-Ability can be used to get a passive and unengaged person involved when joined to an active leader-type. A question to ask may be, “What issues are you and your partner focused on?” In 4-H, doing public presentations in pairs is a good example of joined-participant work.
• Single Voice. Partners can only talk through another person. Somebody else is their voice, and they can only share ideas with this person who will then vocalize the idea to the whole group. Like the Joined Dis-Ability, Single Voice is a good way to get quiet participants involved, by sharing ideas to a leader with their voice. Couples and families are well suited for this Dis-Ability. In 4-H, senior members can shadow intermediate members who are practicing teaching younger members project skills. Issues include communication, listening, cooperation, not being heard, and being a leader. Participants will experience how it feels to only share another’s ideas and not their own. A question to ask may be, “What do you really want to say to others in your life?”
• Questions. Participants are asked only to ask questions, rather than make statements. This is good when some individuals are dominating the process, but you don’t want to take their voice away. It allows dominate participants to stay involved in a challenging manner. Issues include communication, dominance, the importance of clear communication, and cooperation. Questions to ask might be, “What was this like for you?” and “Who in your life do you need to ask more questions of, rather than making statements?
• Negation Statements. Negation statements are statements like, “This won’t work,” or “That’s a dumb idea.” Self-negation, which can be working very quietly in the background, include, “I can’t do this,” or “I’ll never get over the wall.” One or two participants are asked to make either of these statements to observe the effect on the group process. It’s good to let the activity go for only five to ten minutes, and then stop and ask the group what they noticed. Issues include negative forces within the group, and participants avoiding offering their ideas because of the fear of rejection. Questions to ask include, “What happened to the team spirit when these statements were introduced? “Who makes negation statements in your life?”
• Confusion Technique. Participants are asked to say the opposite of what someone else says. Usually one or two people are asked to assume this Dis-Ability. One member says “stop and turn right.” The Dis-Abling member says “let’s go and turn left.” Issues include opposition in the group, people talking at the same time, poor communication, and an inability to resolve conflict. Questions to ask may be, “How did the group experience this confusion?” “Where in your life do you get mixed messages and become confused?”
• Prescribing the Symptom: One or two participants are asked to perform the role he or she normally plays (see Group Behavior in Section II), but perhaps may not be aware of, especially when it’s an unproductive role. Prescribing the symptom makes the participant conscious of what they are doing, and what effect it may have on the other group members. Issues include unproductive group role and raising awareness of the group process.
• Questions may include, “What effect does this role have on the group process?” “What happens when you take this role?” “What do you think a person with this role achieves from it?”

In most cases, creating Dis-Abilities is considered an advanced skill of facilitation and more appropriate for experienced groups. When working with groups, new facilitators may discover that these Dis-Abilities are real and they don’t need to be contrived in order to be addressed!

The Activity: Objectives and Aims

It is important to allow a group to experience and work through a challenge on their own. During this time the facilitator should stand back, keeping a healthy facilitator proximity, and trust the process, but be fully aware and observant of potential safety issues, and the interpersonal dynamics which are taking place. Different stages of group development require different levels of facilitator engagement (see Section II, Stages of Group Development).

Notice that many of the traditional objectives of the adventure experience listed below, are also identified 4-H life-skills (see Section II, 4-H Targeting Life Skills). The features of each objective provide indicators that facilitators can use to assess group performance, and later debrief as life-skills.

Icebreakers and DeInhibitizers

Objective. To provide opportunities for group members to become acquainted and feel comfortable with each other through activities, initiatives, and games that are primarily fun, non-threatening, and group based.

Features:

• Fun is a major component.
• Group members interact in a non-threatening manner.
• Success-oriented; tasks can be easily accomplished with minimal amount of frustration.
• Requires minimal verbal interaction and decision-making skills.

Support, Trust, and Empathy

Objective. To provide an opportunity for group members to trust their physical and emotional safety with others by attempting a graduated series of activities, which involve taking some physical and emotional risks.

Features:

• Involves group interaction both physically and verbally.
• Generally involves fun, but may create some fear.
• Involves the support and cooperation of group members to care for the safety of others.
• Risk taking occurs at many levels in most trust activities.
• The development of trust occurs within the group gradually.
• Trust activities are chosen with the intent of building trust; basic trust activities are initially chosen and can be performed repeatedly to reinforce, and insure, the safety of group members.

Communication

Objective. To provide an opportunity for group members to enhance their ability and skill to communicate thoughts, feelings, and behaviors more appropriately through activities, which emphasize listening, verbal, and physical skills in the group decision-making process.

Features:

• Physical activity, verbal interaction, and discussion are major components in the sharing of ideas.
• The solving of the problem is the established goal.
• Some frustration is generally evident in the solving of the problem.Leadership abilities and skills usually evolve from participants within the group.
• Most activities require at least five members.

Decision Making and Problem Solving

Objective. To provide an opportunity for group members to effectively communicate, cooperate, and compromise with each other through trial-and-error participation in a graduated series of problem-solving activities, which range from simple to complex.

Features:

• Physical activity and verbal communication are involved in order to solve stated problems.
• Arousing a higher level of frustration teaches patience is a virtue.
• Activities demand that group members demonstrate an ability to listen, cooperate, and compromise.
• Leadership roles evolve in the attempt to solve the stated problem or reach the stated goal.
• Trial-and-error approach to learning is most often employed by the group in the problem-solving and decision-making process.

Social Responsibility

Objective. To provide a setting wherein group participants can build upon previous gains in acquaintance, trust, communications, and decision making, and to develop skill in assessing and working effectively with the strengths and weaknesses of individuals in a group.

Features:

• Success in these activities is somewhat dependent upon individuals being able to learn how to support and encourage each other’s efforts.
• Activities tend to help participants learn the value of thinking and planning ahead, rather than reacting in an impulsive and random manner.
• Activities tend to emphasize that participants in the group communicate and cooperate verbally and physically.
• Activities help participants develop skills in assessing problems and formulating solutions.
• Activities help the group relate to the world outside their own in an empathetic and concerned manner.
• Activities tend to help individuals and the group identify and develop leadership in the group.

Personal Responsibility

Objective. To provide activities of a more individualistic nature, which help develop persistence and resistance to frustration in attempting to reach a desired goal.

Features:

• Classic low-challenge course events are the most difficult and trying and the most exciting.
• Activities help group members acknowledge individual and common reactions to fear, stress, and physical limitation.
• Participation in these activities encourages group support for individual efforts.
• Participation helps group members extend the limits of their self-perceived competence, and builds self-confidence by successful completion of a difficult task.
• Activities help group members act on what they have learned about working together, supporting one another, and taking responsibility for one another’s safety.